Social psychology seems to have many origins; critically discuss the historical and philosophical roots of modern social psychology The WritePass Journal

Social psychology seems to have many origins; critically discuss the historical and philosophical roots of modern social psychology Introduction Social psychology seems to have many origins; critically discuss the historical and philosophical roots of modern social psychology IntroductionConclusionRelated Introduction There are many explanations for the origins of modern social psychology. It is therefore important to consider that social psychology cannot be traced back to one single source of origin (Burr, 2003). Hence, this is the reason why there are debates of what social psychology is. Allport (1985) described social psychology as â€Å"the study of people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours which are influenced by the actual, imagines, or implied presence of others†. As seen from this definition there is a direct link between social science and the individual psychology (Sewel, 1989). Social psychology cannot be seen as a linear phenomenon. This is because social psychology has derived from combination of influences. The development of social psychology can be discussed in two different ways. Firstly, social psychology is argued to be found upon political movements and social philosophies in the United Stated of America (US). Secondary, it can be argued that social psychology developed due to the response of social and political needs. 3. There have been debates regarding whether social psychology should be dealt as a natural science or not. The ideology of natural science is very important as it affects the way the social psychologist deal with situations. For example, if there are specific scientific objectives then the study is laboratory based and uses experimental procedures in order to gain knowledge. Psychologists who use this positivistic method are classified as experimental social psychologists. On the other hand, critical-social psychology has competed with experimental-social psychologists. The strength of the critical-social psychologists is that they use a range of different methods in research, and are not limited to scientific knowledge. This includes both qualitative and quantitative methods. Overall, critical social psychologists are described as having a critical ideology in order to uncover meanings of social phenomena (Gough McFadden, 2001). Both critical and experimental social psychology for m the modern social psychology due to their important historical context. Experimental-social psychology is argued to be derived from the American tradition, and critical-social psychology has been argued to be derived from the European tradition. Although this has formed two distinct approaches in the use of methodology in psychology, there are still on-going debates over psychology as a science or not. 4. An important contribution that has made a great impact on the modern social psychology was from William McDougall. McDougall proposed for an evolutionary psychology, which was influenced by Darwin’s theory. Especially with the dominant fields of sociology and anthropology, McDougall was able to link science, sociology and psychology (McDougall, 1919). However, McDougall’s research in social evolution was also interpreted as radical due to the racism involved in behaviour gene inheritance. This shows that even though McDougall’s work has been a start point to the origins of social psychology, it has also led to misconcepts especially in the Western society. Another person who contributed to the origins of social psychology was William James which developed the theory of ‘stream of consciousness’. The strength of the ‘stream of consciousness’ was that it was not only using the introspect technique. The reason why James made an influence in social psychology is due to the step taken from introspection, in order to understand the human’s behaviour by their emotions and thoughts. 5. Although both McDougall and James made a great contribution to social psychology, especially in the context of theories and research, their interpretations are different. This difference is due to the discussion of human nature of free will. Overall, McDougall can be described as the origin of the European tradition of social psychology. This is because he believed an individual lacks free will due to the social and cultural forces. Whereas James can be described as the origins of the American tradition of social psychology. This is because James explained that individuals are conscious of their own decisions. Furthermore, James is an influencing figure in the philosophical movement of Pragmatism. Pragmatism approached ideologies and propositions with practical ideas, e.g. experimental validity. 9. The emergence of experimental social psychology is very different to critical social psychology. Rogers (2004) clarified the first social psychology experiments to be Triplett’s study on dynamogenic influence. In basic terms Triplett’s noticed that children performed better when in competition with others. Triplett’s study can now interpreted as social influence. However, Hogg Vaughan (1998) argues that Triplett’s study cannot be explained as the first social psychology study because it was recognised later on when the study was reformed. Nevertheless, Triplett’s study established the use of experimental methodology in his investigation. 6. Volkerpsychologie was a movement in Germany in the late nineteenth century. The Volkerpsycholgie disciple tried to explain the reasons behind social groupings as collective dimension (Rogers, 2003). The social groups in Germany where mainly dominant of specific German nationalist character. From these German characters it was proposed that language and culture had a role in individual perception and thinking. This led to Wundt’s proposition of using experimental psychology in order to investigate language and culture. Hence, Wundt is described as the ‘founder of experimental psychology’ (Burr, 2004). As an experimental psychologist Wundt believed psychology was a natural science, which is the reason why Wundt used introspection technique to interpret the consciousness, inner-thoughts, desires and sensations of individuals (English, 1921). However he did not ignore the philosophy of psychology, particularly with the rise of crowd-psychology. The history of crowd psychology links to the French Revolution in 1789-1799.   Crowd psychology can be described as a collectivist approach, in which the term ‘social’ is critical to our understanding, largely due to group influence and culture. 7. Between the periods of French revolution a lot of philosophical thinkers, including Comte and Durkheim, became interested on how the society and individuals influence each other. With the vast amount of literature emerging in France on social ideas the French-social theory began to develop. The French-social theory introduced Positivism, as of Comte. The doctrine of positivism allowed philosophy and science to be separated in order for science to become distinguished. However, the positivistic approach also was a major factor in the separation of American and European social psychology (Farr, 1996). This is why Comte can be perceived as the founder of social psychology (ALLPORT 1954). Comte’s work was influenced but also debated by Durkheim (Poggi, 2000W). Durkheim’s addition to French-social theory was the method of comparative, which is devised of observation (Randall, 1975W). The study of social representation became very famous in the French revolution period, pa rticularly Durkheim’s research that showed collective representation within a society (Farr, 1996). One of the major influences that this had on the modern social psychology is from Moscovici study. Moscovici noted Durkheim as his influence for his study in social representation (Farr, 1996). Social representation theory brought a new development to the social psychology, which is now described as critical social psychology. 8. With the French revolution the philosophical era of Enlightenment emerged. Enlightenment era brought civilisation to individuals, away from the religious authority of the church (Burr, 2004). This allowed individual’s to search for truth of reality, by means of reasoning. The ‘search for truth’ allowed individuals to explore social phenomena. For example; the ideology of Marx on social class and labour, Piaget’s reasoning of child development. Within the period of Enlightenment two different theoretical concepts arose; Modernism and Postmodernism. The assumption of science as the foundation to knowledge is constructed by modernism. The principles of modernism are described as; democracy, liberal individualism, liberal humanism, and science (Roger, 2003). The science established by modernism, brought a progress from the knowledge gained from the religious beliefs to the knowledge gained from scientific methods. However, postmodernism argues that knowledge is not discovered but rather constructed. Postmodernism also argue that there is multiple variety of knowledge, which the individual constructs by means of reasoning. The individuals construct their knowledge’s due to situation factors including culture and society in different locations. For example, the psychological illness of depression cannot always be diagnosed with the same scientific tests in different cultures. The principle of the postmodernisms has had a key impact on critical social psychology. Even though modernism and postmodernism are opposite terms, critically speaking both have established a European tradition of collectivistic approach. 9. The emergence of experimental social psychology is very different to critical social psychology. Rogers (2004) clarified the first social psychology experiments to be Triplett’s study on dynamogenic influence. In basic terms Triplett’s noticed that children performed better when in competition with others. Triplett’s study can now interpreted as social influence. However, Hogg Vaughan (1998) argues that Triplett’s study cannot be explained as the first social psychology study because it was recognised later on when the study was reformed. Nevertheless, Triplett’s study established the use of experimental methodology in his investigation. 2. One of the most significant event is social psychology is the World War 2 (WWII). Post war issues of social warfare arouse, which had an influence on social science applications. This event of WWII made the start of social psychology in the US in 20th century (Cartwright, 1979). This is mainly due the large amount of research conducted to investigate the reasons behind the Nazis attack on the Jews in WWII. Some psychologist including Lewin immigrated Germany to the US in order to conduct research on the areas of organisations and groups. He is now generally described as the ‘founder of social psychology’. Another researcher who also immigrated to the US was Moscovici who presented revolutionary findings in social representation in the field of minority influence. However, the main aim of social psychology research in the US was on government regulations of propaganda. Throughout this period the American tradition of social psychology started to emerge. The American tr adition was an individualistic one which emphasises on individual importance, e.g. the society is made up of individual 1, individual 2, individual 3, ect. Conclusion Overall the American tradition can be interpreted as the historical roots of social psychology. Whereas the European tradition can be interpreted as the philosophical roots of social psychology. The American root of social psychology now has a great impact on social cognitive approach. Social cognition includes attribution, stereotypes, autism, (Striano Reid, 2008). The European roots of social psychology have led to social constructionism and social representation. The modern social psychology is now constructed with the American and European doctrines. However, due to the political events and developing researches in social psychology, the disciple has only been able to contain within America (Cartwright, 1979). On the other hand, Gergen (1973) argued that social psychology cannot be interpreted as a science because social psychology is historically and culturally specific, which is the reason why the discipline is continuously changing. Critically speaking, there is an advantage of different approaches to social psychology, as it views dilemmas in different perspectives.

The Whiteness of Nerds

The Whiteness of Nerds 1. The anthropological study of Mary Bucholtz (2001) was conducted in the Bay City High School in 1995-96, and the article under review represents her findings on the discourse of whiteness, blackness, and super-whiteness exercised through acceptance of particular socio-linguistic roles by students known as ‘nerds’.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on The Whiteness of Nerds specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The author investigates the linguistic mechanisms such as the usage of appropriate, super-standard English grammar, pronunciation, and choice of lexicon (full refusal from the youth slang, and its usage only to imply the division) as the way nerds distance themselves from other white students, and black students. The key criterion they use to articulate their division is intelligence and its realization through language. The topic of racialization of the notion of ‘whiteness’ not on ly visvis blackness, but inside it, involving the gradation of whiteness, is explored (Bucholtz 2001: 86). 2. The issue highlighted in the present article is the way racial markedness of certain groups of youth in the modern American society is achieved through the usage of certain linguistic forms, and the way this phenomenon is introduced in the notion of ‘whiteness’ that used to be considered a solid category juxtaposed to ‘blackness’. 3. The importance of the author’s argument is in the segmentation of the white society according to linguistic norms similarly to a wider division between larger groups of population, i.e. African American and European American students. The way language ideologies perform cultural work of division within a single socio-cultural group has not yet been explored in full; therefore, the cultural segmentation presented through linguistic means, and the potential for creating a particular profile of the group by means of using linguistic markers has much potential for future research. 4. The author ties her findings and conclusions to the research on language ideology and explores the subculture of nerds through such linguistic processes as iconization, fractal recursivity, and erasure (Bucholtz 2001: 88). She explains the detachment strategies of nerds on the basis of these ideological tools.Advertising Looking for critical writing on anthropology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More 5. There are several implications of Bucholtz’s line of argument relating to the volume of original material processed in the course of the discussed research. As for the meaning of intelligence as the main marker for ‘blackness’ and ‘whiteness’, as well as the measure of whiteness that can also differ widely across the group of all white people, there is comprehensive evidence of its essential meaning for all discursive ma rkedness cases discussed. Thus, for example, the notion of ‘hillbillies’ (as the degraded form of whiteness) can be assessed according to the intelligence criterion (Bucholtz 2001: 84). The example of African American students concealing their intellectual potential at school not to be accused of â€Å"acting white† and not to be called a â€Å"brainiac† also certifies the strong impact of not only inter-racial markedness, but the measures of intra-racial markedness that at times are even stronger than the inter-racial forms. Secondly, the process of creating a language ideology is welded in the sound body of evidence, which is genuinely persuasive. The study of Irvine and Gal 2000 is outlined and then utilized on a set of examples from the students’ interviews (Bucholtz 2001: 88). The way the author selects the fragment of interviews and explains the usage of certain terminology by the ideological view of certain elements of a subculture as ingrain ed and typifying is logical and efficient in the whole research. 6. The author has used the observational method, and applied the structured and unstructured interviews with the students of Bay City High School. 7. The ability to create socio-cultural markedness of one’s language, nerds in particular, may be considered the main strength of Bucholtz’s article. The exploration of the tools and strategies applied by nerds to underline their intelligence, and the role of intelligence in the estimate of ‘whiteness’, are also the strong sides of the research. However, the study lacks the generalization potential – observation in one school and for only one year is not enough to articulate the socio-linguistic characteristics of a specific demographic group in action. More comprehensive and longitudinal studies are required to make the study’s hypotheses stronger. 8. The present article represents much food for thought in shaping the knowledge about various aspects of communication on the broader scale. It is possible to assess more practical aspects of the unifying and separating power that one language may have within one culture.Advertising We will write a custom critical writing sample on The Whiteness of Nerds specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More As Miller, Esterik, and Esterik note (2010: 327), any language has strong ties to the culture in which it is spoken; it shaped the culture in the historical discourse of its formation, and makes it distinct from any other culture with another unique language. However, nowadays some subdivisions of a language may shape the unique appearance of certain subcultures, and give both positive and negative attributes to them. The notion of the relationships between language and class is also reinforced with the help of Bucholtz (2001). The issue of nerds striving to take a higher rank due to the usage of super-standard English, and the attrib ute of ‘hillbillies’ as degraders in the scale of the social class, show how the usage of certain linguistic norms shapes a certain image of language users, both unintentionally and by their deliberate effort. Hence, the language has become a strong instrument in shaping one’s identity, and it may be manipulated accordingly by a certain subculture or group.

Cheese defects and prevention Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cheese defects and prevention - Essay Example The first defect is known as corky. It is a defect that is characterized by being dry and hard. Dryness is as a result of low moisture and hardness may be attributed to low fat content in the cheese. The hardness produces very strong resistance against the tier during penetration. These defects are as a result of various causes. They can arise in the development stage where there is lack of acid. Additionally, the defects can be caused by presence of high salt content in the moisture phase of production and use of excessive calcium chloride which negatively affects the quality of the cheese. More so, studies have indicated that lack of adequate coagulants in production leads to the defects. On the contrary, the defects can be avoided or eliminated by following the standard procedures in cheese making very accurately. The cheese making process should be thoroughly assessed to ensure that the recommended procedures are followed to latter in order to produce high quality cheese (Britz 2 008). Crumbly is another defect found in cheese. It is characterized by the tendency of falling apart when sliced. It also appears to be dry but not as compared to corky cheese. This defect seems to occur in an aging cheese, for instance when it is ten months old but in this respect is is termed as a friable body cheese. Crumbliness of cheese arises as a result of the level of acid produced exceeds the desired level during the cheese making process. It may also occur as a result of the cheese retaining very low moisture content hence the defect. This defect can be avoided by ensuring that the level of moisture produced is maintained as well as the level of acid development. Another remedy is to avoid ripening at very high temperatures (Lawrence 1987). Other defects of cheese include curdy, pasty and softness or weak cheese. The curdy defect of cheese is caused by lack of adequate curing in cheese. This defect can

Evaluating a statement with reference to the traditional concept of Essay

Evaluating a statement with reference to the traditional concept of Domicile in accordance with the English Law - Essay Example Usually, the criteria used for the identification of domicile are differentiated in countries around the world – in most cases the system of law adopted by a specific country is used to decide on the characteristics of domicile in the above country. It should be noted that misunderstanding is often caused because of the co-existence of other terms, like residence, that also refer to the relation of a person to a specific geographical place. Because of the value of domicile in determining the rights and the obligations of people in different social and political activities, a series of rules has been introduced describing the criteria under which a person’s domicile is identified; however, the effectiveness of these rules has been strongly criticized. The specific problem – the level of accuracy and effectiveness of the rules used for identifying a person’s domicile – is examined in this paper; it has been proved that the rules adopted for the identi fication of domicile had to be analytical and detailed – in order to respond to the needs of all related human activities but also to ensure the protection of social and political rights; however, in the long term the above characteristic of these rules had become a major disadvantage leading to the decrease of their effectiveness. At a next level, the limitation of the effectiveness of rules of domicile has been a phenomenon irrelevant with the characteristics of the system of law developed in a particular country; however, current paper refers especially to the rules of domicile developed in the English law emphasizing on the lack of effectiveness of these rules as a result of the use of complex and technical terms – used primarily for ensuring the adaptability of these rules to current social conditions, a target that was never achieved as explained below. In English law,

Alfred and Jungian Essay Example for Free

Alfred and Jungian Essay Alfred Adler posited that we develop styles of life that compensate for innate feelings of inferiority. To overcome such feelings, he stated, we strive for a sense of superiority, defined as a desire to achieve emotional health and completeness. However, Adler believed that individuals are often victims of faulty assumptions or inaccurate perceptions of their pasts. These faulty assumptions and the poor choices we make which are based on them, are often a function of our childhood memories, which are affected by our family constellation and birth order. Adler believed that emotional well-being could be gauged by an individuals  degree of social interests or sense of connectedness to others and to the worldwide community. Considered a psychodynamic theory because of its focus on understanding the dynamic forces that shape ones psyche, Adlerian therapy has also been described as one of the first to apply humanistic and systemic concepts. This is because Adler believed that people are influenced by family relationships but not shackled by past events and can make new meaning in life by being goal-directed. Adler saw therapy as occurring through a series of stages that included establishing a collaborative relationship, analyzing the clients problems,  sharing insights, helping the client reorient to new ways of living, and reinforcing and evaluating the change process. Adlerian therapists will often show empathy, conduct a lifestyle assessment, examine early recollections and dreams, communicate, respect and confidence, focus on strengths and encourage clients, help clients combat faulty assumptions, and focus on goals. Lets see how Dr. Gilchrist uses some of the above techniques to help Shannon examine how early recollections of her family have affected her need to be perfect and how striving for perfection results in a fair amount of stress in her life. Jungian analysis assumes that the individual achieves well-being through the exploration of what Carl Jung [assumed spelling] called the personal unconscious and the collective unconscious. Containing repressed materials from childhood, the personal unconscious is symbolized by Jungs archetype of the shadow self, which represents all parts of the psyche unacceptable to self and others. Jung believed that the most important task of early adulthood is to bring the contents of the shadow self to awareness and integrate it into the conscious personality. The shadow manifests as the opposite of Jungs concept of the persona, or our public mask. In contrast, the collective unconscious is a universal and transpersonal component of the psyche that contains all human experience and potential. Once the shadow has been embraced, the client can continue in the process of what Jung called individuation, a gradual incorporation of universal archetypal patterns into everyday experience. These archetypes provide blueprints for creative development and manifest in our dreams, art, religious symbols, and myths. Two of the most significant archetypes are the anima, which represents the feminine within all males, and the animist, which represents  the masculine within all females. Jung believed that the unconscious could be accessed through the imagination as manifested in dreams, free association, images, and symbols, as well as what Jung called active imagination. Exploring these symbols and images are a means of understanding the past, relieving psychological symptoms and finding guidance in creating a full and more meaningful life. In this role play, watch how Dr. Paula Justice works with Karen as they explore dream images to help the client acknowledge and embrace her shadow self, and how it might be integrated into her public self and waking life.

Dinosaurs :: Essays Papers

Dinosaurs †¦I found myself with my leg lodged between two trees which the Tyrannosaurus Rex knocked over. I remained totally still knowing that if I moved the T-Rex would see me. The beast came so close to me that I could feel him breathing on my face. The T-Rex however, could not see me because of his poor vision and the time of night. Then I saw my chance, just as he bent over to eye me one more time I struck him in the eye with my knife made of bone. I pushed the knife deeper and deeper into the beast's head until his screaming stopped. The T-Rex fell shaking the earth with its weight. I was hunting for my wife and children who lived in the cave-house I built for them last winter. I and my two boys of the age of sixty and seventy-two seasons skinned the T-rex. It took three days to haul all the meat back to the cave house. My wife stored the meat in the underground cavern we had, which we usually used to hide ourselves from hunting dinosaurs. Our cave-house was located in what was called a cave city. These cities were carved out of a giant mountain and were run by an almighty leader, whom we referred to as the almighty. The people who lived in the cave-city were called commoners, and were referred to as the people. In every cave-city there was a drinking den, where the men of the city could come after a day of hunting and working to kick back and relax. At the drinking den the men enjoyed drinking fresh-made berry juice which would cost only two shells a serving. In the drinking den there were a lot of men who loved to tell stories about what they hunted and how big their catch was. Most of what these men said was half-true. They never told the whole truth in a story. For example if a man were to kill a T-Rex, which was ten thousand, hands tall they would say the Rex was eleven thousand hands tall. I usually went to the drinking den everyday. There were three men whom usually accompanied me there. These men's names were Big Joe, Medium Tim and Tiny Mike. Big Joe was about fifteen hands high and four hands wide, he had a low-pitched voice and was slow in his ways, he had a very short temper and was known for being somewhat of a Klutz.

Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar Al-Bukhary

Early life Syed Mokhtar al-Bukhary was born into a mid-low class Malay family; whose house was without necessities and luxuries. His highest education was only until form five, and he never went to university. A whole lot of his knowledge and experience was gained through his own entrepreneurship experience during his youth time. Due in part his family's mediocre-to-poor background, Syed Mokhtar al Bukhary had to step into the working world in his early life, while pursuing his primary and secondary studies. Syed Mokhtar helped his mother planting and selling vegetables in the market and also selling roti canai. His numeric knowledge was used to help his father in doing daily book keeping. After finishing school, Syed Mokhtar helped his father in breeding cow business but only to see the business washed away by foot and mouth disease. Nevertheless, he took over the business and start over by selling meats. He then move on to packaging the meats and start selling them wholesale. His determination paid off and the business started to take off. Career Syed Mokhtar and Zainal started his business in Kedah in the 1990s dealing in rice. More success followed and he moved to rice trading business. He worked even harder after awarded the rice trading license from Lembaga Padi Negara, and was later awarded successions of supplier contract government-linked corporations as partner with Zainal Hatim Hj Ambia Bukhary. As his determination starting to skyrocket, he quickly moved to expand into diversification of other businesses. His next big move was in the logistics business, with initial goal to transport their trading materials. Today, his business empire has grown into areas such as plantation, property development, construction, engineering, power generation, infrastructure and ports. He owns 51. 8% share in Malaysian Mining Corporation via his wholly owned company, Syarikat Impian Teladan Sdn. Bhd. Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar and Zainal Hatim personally owns SKS Ventures, which was awarded the task of building the site for 2100MW coal-fired power station at Tanjung Bin, Johor. Tan Sri Syed Mohktar has a 32% share in PERNAS through his own company, Syarikat Ratu Jernih. Syarikat Perdana Padu Sdn. Bhd. and Corak Kukuh Sdn. Bhd. Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar and Zainal are Board Members of Syarikat Bina Puri Holdings Berhad, whereby, on his own, he has 7. 34% share. Apart from these, Tan Sri Syed Mokhtar and Zainal has varied interest in a number of companies, both in Malaysia as well as abroad. Charity His philanthropic values were nurtured from the age of 23 when he started a small business dealing in rice. When he received his first monthly income of RM1,500, his mother had told him to donate half of it to the poor. [3] From 1996 to 2006, his foundation has contributed almost RM1bil to charity, although his total income is probably in multiples of that figure. He has humanitarian projects in Asia and Africa, including rebuilding the lives of Afghan refugees, Pakistan's ear's tsunami victims and is now working to establish an AIDS hospital in Uganda. Among the foundation's initiatives are the Albukhary Tuition Programme for poor underachievers and the Albukhary Scholarship Programme for poor high achievers. Recognition In appreciation of his enormous services and contributions, he was bestowed with several awards, which among others, include the Panglima Setia Mahkota (P. S. M. ) by His Majesty Seri Paduka Baginda Yang di-Pertuan Agong, which carries the title Tan Sri and the Dato' Setia Mahkota Kedah (D. S. D. K. by HRH The Sultan Kedah, which carries the title Dato'. On 10 January 2008 or 1st Muharram 1429 Hijra he was announced and awarded as â€Å"Tokoh Ma'al Hijrah† by The Yang Di Pertuan Agong of Malaysia in recognition of his contribution to nation building and also Controversies A number of companies controlled by Syed Mokhtar have come under attack for development activities on greenfield sites. For example, the clearance of mangroves for the development of Johor Port has led to some criticisms from local environm ental groups. 4] He has also been identified as a major beneficiary of political connections that have given his subsidiary companies monopoly control over crucial Malaysian sectors, including rice, power and ports. Started out in the â€Å"bowl of Malaysia† as a rice trader. Later got government backing. Today controls Malaysia Mining Corporation (MMC); has stakes in Malaysia's Johor Port; the country's largest independent power producer Malakoff; and natural gas distribution company Gas Malaysia. Has invested in MPH (a book retailer in Singapore and Malaysia). He's contributed to a number of Islamic schools, mosques and Islamic arts.

Court History and Purpose Essay

Abstract â€Å"The court represents the collective conscience of society, serving as an instrument for expressing the revulsion people feel for those who commit particularly heinous crimes† (Siegal, Schmalleger, & Worrall, 2011). This paper will discuss the history of court and its purpose. It will also define the dual court system. It will describe the role that early legal codes, the common law, and precedent played in the development of courts. It will identify the role of courts in present criminal justice. The Purpose of Court The purpose for court is simply to find guilt or innocence in someone who has been charged of a crime or to settle disputes in civil matters. Such matters must have the legal authority of a judge to be considered a court. In many courts the adversary process is used, allowing both sides to give any evidence, arguments, or persuasion to support their case. A judge or a jury will decide whose case is credible based on the arguments given. In the past, disputes were handled informally and not in a civilized manner. Some people would take matters into their own hands, which led to violence. In today’s society, all matters are handled in a formal and civilized manner. The Dual Court System The judicial branch of the U.S. Government is considered a dual court system because it separates the federal court from the state court. â€Å"The dual system is advantageous and desirable because it parallels federalism, a system of government where power is constitutionally divided between a central governing body (i.e., the federal government) and various constituent units (i.e., the states) (Siegal, Schmalleger, & Worrall, 2011). The establishment of a dual court system began in colonial period. â€Å"The  United States Constitution mandated the establishment of a Federal court system in 1789, when each of the original 13 Colonies already maintained its own comprehensive court system (2013). In federalism, it is required that laws are made by the federal government and the state. Although the dual court system is â€Å"desirable†, it can also cause confusion between the federal and state courts. This is because some cases can be heard at both federal and state levels, and it can be hard to determine how the case should be handled. The Development of Courts The development and influences of the U.S. judicial system came along during the time this country was started. In the beginning, religion played a major part in making the laws of the country. The early legal codes played a significant role in the judicial system as well. These legal codes were used back 1760 B.C. One of the most known legal code is the Code of Hammurabi, who was the king of Babylon. The philosophy behind this code is retribution. Other early legal codes came from ancient Rome. The Twelve Tables were written in 450 B.C. They were said to be the first written legal code. The Twelve Tables was based on strong retribution, establishing the â€Å"eye for an eye† theory for justice. Because the early legal codes were considered to be harsh and informal, it was paved the way for the changes of the judicial system to develop a more formal and civilized system. Common law emerged in England during the Middle Ages and was applied within British colonies across continents (2010). Its role gave judges authority to make decisions as they saw fit. There was no legislature or law making process during this time. Judges would also record the decisions, which led to precedent. â€Å"Precedent refers, generally, to some prior action that guides current action† (Siegal, Schmalleger, & Worrall, 2011). In new cases, judges could apply precedents in their decision, which is how makes it common law. Common law has been implemented into today’s judicial system by following previous courts decisions in cases. It is unlikely that once a judge makes a decision that it will be reversed or changed from precedent. The Present Role of Courts In today’s judicial system, there are two roles involved in courts:  adjudication and oversight. Adjudication means that judges decides if a person is guilty or innocent when they have been involved in a criminal act. Appellate courts make sure that lower courts are applying the correct laws in court proceedings. Having the appellate courts verify all laws ensures that if any mistakes or incorrect information was given by the judges, they will be held accountable. Courts oversee the operations of criminal justice officials to provide a level of indirect supervision. The appellate courts decide laws that will determine how police officers to their job on the street (Siegal, Schmalleger, & Worrall, 2011). Oversight is only necessary when the appellate courts are involved in a decision. If such decisions are publicized, the appellate courts will be involved also. It all depends on the severity of the incident involve by police officers will it be brought to the courts attention . Conclusion The judicial system has indeed changed over the course of time. History has shown that the development of the judicial system was fathered from England and other ancient heritages that set the foundation of how laws are created and implemented into today’s society. More common law is being practiced in many states across the nation. Some of the practices were very informal and retributive, however in today’s court system, court proceedings are in a formal and civilized setting. References Siegal, L.J., Schmallegar, F., & Worrall, J.L (2011). Courts and criminal justice in America. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. The common law and civil law traditions. (2010). The Robbins Collection. Retrieved From University of California at Berkeley School of Law (Boalt Hall): http://www.law.berkeley.edu/library/robbins/CommonLawCivilLawTraditions.html Understanding the U.S. court system in a glance. (2013). Retrieved from http://court.laws.com/court-system.

Estrogen Mimics and thier Effect on the Environment.

Estrogen Mimics and thier Effect on the Environment. Until now DDT could very well be considered the biggest environmental disaster to date. DDT, or dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, reportedly induced cancer in animals, induced antiandrogen effects, and impaired Natural Killer cells and T lymphocyte responses (Daniels et al. 2002). But now estrogen mimics confront the environment with a potentially greater catastrophe.Estrogen mimics, or xenoestrogens (foreign estrogens), are introduced into the body from the environment, mimic the actions of estrogen produced cells or alter the hormone's activity (Davis and Bradlow, 1995). Some of the foreign estrogens can reduce the effects of estrogens. These xenoestrogens are usually found in plant foods such as soy products, cauliflower and broccoli (Davis and Bradlow, 1995).There is significant evidence that the endocrine systems of fish, wildlife, and humans can be adversely affected by exposure to environmental contaminants, which contain estrogen mimics, such as pesticides, industrial chemical s, and wood-derived sterols. Therefore, Exposure to such chemicals can lead to developmental abnormalities, reproductive failure, altered immune functions, and many other abnormal endocrine functions (Buhler et al.,English: Rainbow trout2000). Estrogen mimics along with other endocrine-disrupting materials may promote breast cancer. Studies have shown that xenoestrogens and these other endocrine-disrupting materials are also harming men by contributing to reproductive disorders, most notable being testicular cancer (Davis and Bradlow, 1995).In 1938, British scientist Edward Dodds introduced a chemical that somehow acted in the body like a natural estrogen. This "wonder drug", know as diethylstilbestrol or DES, was almost immediately given to women experiencing problems while giving birth in the belief that insufficient estrogen levels caused miscarriages and premature births. DES was thought to have many other uses as well such as, to treat acne, prostate cancer, and gonorrhea in ch ildren. However future studies proved that this so called "wonder drug" made no difference in the outcome of pregnancies. It didn't...

Overview of The American Academy

Overview of The American Academy The American Academy offers over 230 online courses for high school students. Students enrolled in The American Academy can complete individual courses or work towards an accredited diploma. Courses are self-paced and have a generous 6-month completion deadline, giving students the flexibility to set their own schedules. Accreditation The American Academy is accredited by Northwest Association of Accredited Schools, a regional accrediting agency. Degrees and Programs The American Academy offers online courses and high school diploma programs to students of any age. In addition to traditional diplomas, they provide the Dropout Recovery Program designed to help former students complete a high school diploma from their local school districts. Homeschool students can also take a la carte courses, enroll in a math/science bundle, or work towards a diploma. Admissions The American Academy offers open enrollment to all students. Classes start on Monday every week. Typically, each credit requires approximately 120 hours of work. Students can select courses through a shopping cart system, making it easy to tailor the curriculum to individual needs. Interesting Fact Students enrolled in The American Academy receive 50 minutes of one-on-one tutoring time from licensed professionals. Additional tutoring time may be purchased. Contact Information Website:Â  www.theamericanacademy.comPhone: 866-689-1932Address: 175 S. Main, Suite 1130Salt Lake City, UT 84111

Building matrices ( to answer my PICO question) Assignment

Building matrices ( to answer my PICO question) - Assignment Example It would have been externally valid if it had selected a sample that would represent a larger population. However, it might be still useful as a primary source. The study yielded reliable and valid results, but it would have been improved by ensuring that a study group instead of the caregivers controlled the medications. Additionally, most caregivers are family members who have les education on the actual purpose of drug administration. Adler, G., Mueller, B., & Articus, K. (2014). The transdermal formulation of rivastigmine improves caregiver burden and treatment adherence of patients with Alzheimers disease under daily practice conditions. Int J Clin Pract, 68(4), 465-470. doi:10.1111/ijcp.12374 Arranz, F., & LÃÆ' ³pez-Pousa, S. (2013). Characteristics of patients with Alzheimer’s disease who switch to rivastigmine transdermal patches in routine clinical practice. PPA, 47. doi:10.2147/ppa.s38719 Andrade-dos-Santos, G., Canineu, P., Pardi, P., & GonÃÆ' §alves, I. (2011). Influence of Rivastigmine transdermal on butyrylcholinesterase levels in patients with Alzheimerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s disease. Alzheimers & Dementia, 5(4), 332-336. Gauthier, S., Robillard, A., Cohen, S., Black, S., Sampalis, J., & Colizza, D. et al. (2013). Real-life effectiveness and tolerability of the rivastigmine transdermal patch in patients with mild-to-moderate Alzheimerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s disease: the EMBRACE study. Curr Med Res Opin, 29(8), 989-1000. doi:10.1185/03007995.2013.802230 Moretti, D., Frisoni, G., Binetti, G., & Zanetti, O. (2014). Comparison of the effects of transdermal and oral rivastigmine on cognitive function and EEG markers in patients with AlzheimerÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢s disease. Frontiers In Aging Neuroscience, 6.

Read the requirement carefully Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Read the requirement carefully - Essay Example The difference in the products and the way in which firms compete is also discussed. The assumptions that hold for the perfect market are also explained and highlighted. A perfectly competitive market is the one in which the market forces work without any hindrance. This means that the demand and supply interact to determine the price which is accepted by all the other firms. This market is only a theoretical one based on assumptions and it tells us that how a markets should respond to the changes in demand and supply. The perfect market is nonexistent in our real world like all the other perfect things but it is important to understand it. This is because the perfect market structure can be used to compare the other markets and their responses to changes in different situations. (Goshit & Mai-Lafia, 2009) Firstly, let us consider the case of equilibrium in a perfect market. The supply and demand will become equal at some point and that point will be considered as the equilibrium poi nt of the market. The following drawing shows a perfect market at equilibrium. The forces of supply and demand fix the price at $5. (Goshit & Mai-Lafia, 2009) Now, like all the other markets, the perfect markets also faces demand and supply shocks to which it reacts accordingly. Mostly the market responds to changes in demand as the consumer is considered sovereign. Let us now consider the case where the consumer demand increases. This may be due to any reason but let us suppose that it is due to an increase in the price of a substitute. The market will shift accordingly. The following drawing shows how. (Archambault, 2008) The increase in demand will result in extra demand at the same price. This will create a shortage of the product. The supply will react accordingly and there will be a movement along the supply curve. This will lead to a new equilibrium at a higher price and a higher quantity. This is because the consumers were willing to pay more for the good and thus the market forces reacted and short run equilibrium was attained. This increase in demand will also add to the consumer and producer surplus which is the area between the two graphs. These two refer to the difference between the amount that the consumer or the producer expects and the price. (Krugman and Wells, 2008, p.71-72) The long run response of the market will be different. The long run equilibrium of a market is when the marginal cost becomes equal to the lowest of average total cost (ATC). This equilibrium will be disturbed by the increase in demand. The firms will now charge a higher price than their marginal costs and thus their average revenue will exceed their average total costs. The firms will be earning an abnormal profit. (Peck, 2006) The following graphs show the disturbance. As a result of the abnormal profit, new firms will enter the industry to make profit for themselves. This will cause the supply to increase. This increased supply will push the prices downwards back to n ormal with a higher amount of goods traded than before. The long run equilibrium will be attained and the market will return back to normal. (Burnette, 2012) The following graph shows the effect of new firms entering the market. Perfect markets differ from the markets we see daily. There are assumptions that need to be considered. The first one is that there are many sellers in the market, which means that the competition is intense. Secondly,